# Introduction War and conflict is unfortunately a part of daily life for many and the consequences have far reaching implications for those not directly affected. This article however, is not anthropocentric but rather a deep dive into how one of our worst traits is impacting ecosystems using available data. At the time of writing (2026) there are currently 38 countries around the world in some form of conflict (Figure 1) ranging from terrorist insurgency, political unrest, civil war and drug war. ![[CIC.jpeg]] *Figure 1: A map of countries currently in conflict (ACLED Data, 2025).* # Impact on Ecosystems ## Greenhouse Gas Emissions In this section we look at Greenhouse gases (GHG). GHG's are a widely discussed issue in the media and across companies/organizations who are obliged to reduce them due to government regulations, but how and why do they contribute to climate change? While GHG's do occur in nature, humans have accelerated their presence in the atmosphere through the use of burning fossil fuels and other industrial processes. It is important to note that GHG's trap heat in the Earth's atmosphere, so an increase in their concentration has the potential to drastically increase Earth's surface and Oceans. This has implications for the climate such as disrupting natural weather patterns, causing extreme weather events and unpredictable changes. All of which affect our ability to grow crops, cause damage to infrastructure to name a few. Table 1 outlines a list of major GHG's which are contributing to potential global warming and climate change. | **Greenhouse Gas** | **Chemical Formula** | **Atmospheric Lifetime (Years)** | **100-Year GWP** | **Major Sources** | | ------------------------ | -------------------- | -------------------------------- | ---------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------- | | **Carbon dioxide** | CO₂ | Multiple (decades to millennia) | **1** | Fossil fuel combustion, deforestation, cement production | | **Methane** | CH₄ | 12 | **28** | Fossil fuel production, agriculture, landfills | | **Nitrous oxide** | N₂O | 109 | **273** | Fertilizer application, fossil fuel combustion, industrial processes | | **CFC-12** | CCl₂F₂ | 102 | **10,200** | Refrigerants, aerosols | | **HFC-23** | CHF₃ | 222 | **12,400** | Refrigerants, chemical production | | **Nitrogen trifluoride** | NF₃ | 569 | **17,400** | Semiconductor manufacturing, electricity transmission | | **Sulfur hexafluoride** | SF₆ | 3,200 | **23,500** | Electricity transmission, magnesium production | *Table 1: Major GHG's and their sources, including Global Warming Potential (GWP).* GHG's are poorly reported by the military due to reporting being voluntary and exemptions due to national security, historically under the 2015 Paris agreement and now under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). This black hole in data poses an interesting conundrum in projecting the militaries impact on climate change. With available data from UNFCCC, CEOBS were able to approximate total emissions of each country across the world in 2023. Figure 2 demonstrates total stationary military emissions of a country in 2023 using available data. Russia's emissions came to 42 MtC02e, attributable to the ongoing war in Ukraine. > Stationary military emissions are greenhouse gas emissions produced by energy use at fixed military sites, including heating and electricity consumption at bases, facilities, and other installations. ![[CIC_Stationary_Emissions.jpeg]] *Figure 2: Map of stationary military emissions in Mega Tonne's of Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (MtC02e) of each country in 2023.* Given the current political climate across the world, reporting of mobile emissions is scarce and unreliable. Figure 3 shows total mobile military emissions of each country who bothered to report them, though their quality and validity is questionable. The UK has the highest mobile military emissions at 1.4 MtC02. > Mobile military emissions are greenhouse gases produced by the fuel use of military vehicles, ships, and aircraft transporting personnel and equipment, rather than from fixed sources like base heating. These emissions are separate from those generated by supply chains or infrastructure and often make up a large share of a military’s carbon footprint, with aircraft alone sometimes accounting for up to half of total military emissions. ![[CIC_Mobile_Emissions.jpeg]] *Figure 3: Map of mobile military emissions in Mega Tonne's of Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (MtC02e) of each country in 2023.* CEOBS estimate that military emissions account for 5.5% of all global emissions. This of course accounts for data of emissions that are reported, it is likely to be a lot more. ## Deforestation In context of conflict and the military, removal and destruction of forests is considered a necessary evil to gain a strategic advantage in the field. Sometimes it could be a matter of life and death, which makes this topic difficult to navigate a universal policy to reduce unnecessary deforestation during conflict. Examples of how forests are being affected by conflict are shown in Table 2. | **Method** | **Description** | **Purpose** | **Environmental Impact** | | ----------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------- | | Chemical defoliation | Spraying herbicides to strip leaves and vegetation | Remove enemy cover and food sources | Long-term soil damage, biodiversity loss, water contamination | | Slash-and-burn | Cutting and burning forests | Clear land quickly for bases or visibility | Air pollution, habitat destruction, carbon emissions | | Bulldozing / mechanical clearing | Using heavy machinery to remove trees and vegetation | Build roads, bases, landing zones | Soil compaction, erosion, permanent habitat loss | | Aerial bombing | Bombs and explosives destroying forested areas | Expose hidden forces, destroy supply routes | Craters, ecosystem collapse, long recovery time | | Controlled burning (scorched earth) | Intentional burning to deny resources to enemy | Prevent enemy use of land and supplies | Large-scale habitat loss, climate effects | | Road construction | Building access routes through forests | Improve troop movement and logistics | Fragmentation of ecosystems, increased human encroachment | | Logging for military supply | Harvesting timber for construction and fuel | Build infrastructure, fortifications | Overexploitation, deforestation expansion | | Mine clearing / land clearing | Removing vegetation to detect mines or traps | Increase safety and visibility | Localized habitat destruction, soil disruption | | Use of incendiary weapons | Fire-based weapons igniting forests | Destroy cover and infrastructure | Wildfires, long-term ecological damage | | Trenching and fortifications | Digging into forested land for defense | Create defensive positions | Soil disruption, tree removal, erosion | *Table 2: A table outlining methods of deforestation during conflict.* Forests are complex dynamic systems, providing many unseen services to people, plants, fungi, other animals and microbes across the world. By destroying these ecosystems, we potentially lose rare or endangered species that may never recover. Expose and produce harmful pollutants into the air and atmosphere and reduce localised carbon sequestration. ## Case Study in Ukraine ```mermaid timeline title Ukraine War Timeline 2021 : Russia mass troops near Ukraine borders Feb 2022 : Russia launches full-scale invasion : Attacks on Kyiv, Kharkiv, and southern Ukraine Mar-Apr 2022 : Battle of Kyiv : Ukraine repels Russian advance from north Mid 2022 : Russia captures parts of Donbas : Ukraine resists in east and south Sep 2022 : Ukraine counteroffensive in Kharkiv : Major territory recaptured Nov 2022 : Ukraine retakes Kherson 2023 : Prolonged fighting in east (Bakhmut) : Ukraine launches counteroffensive in south 2024 : Continued stalemate and attritional warfare : Ongoing missile and drone strikes 2025 : War continues with shifting frontlines : International aid and geopolitical tensions persist ``` Using Google Earth Engine it was possible to determine total forest loss between the years 2022 and 2026 (Figure 4), where according to the GEE output, approximately **1,271 Km2** of forest has been lost since the start of the Ukraine war. To understand the methodology of remote sensing involved in this study, check out the code in [[Forest Loss in Ukraine]]. ![[Ukraine_Deforestation.png]] *Figure 4: Total deforestation in the Ukraine since the war in 2022.* It is worth noting that Google has taken precautions during the start of this war to censor satellite imagery to prevent the public and other parties from accessing sensitive areas such as the war front. As a result the area of deforestation is likely to be much more. # Ocean Disturbance and Pollution Table 3 outlines how military actions affect the ocean and wider ecosystem. | Military Action | Description | Environmental Impact | | ------------------------------------ | ---------------------------------------------------------------------- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Sonar Testing | Use of powerful underwater sound waves to detect submarines | Disrupts marine mammals (e.g., whales, dolphins), causing disorientation, strandings, and hearing loss | | Underwater Explosions | Detonation of bombs, mines, or torpedoes in water | Kills marine life instantly, damages habitats like coral reefs, creates shockwaves affecting large areas | | Oil Spills from Warfare | Destruction of oil tankers, pipelines, or rigs during conflict | Massive marine pollution, long-term ecosystem damage, toxic effects on wildlife | | Dumping of Military Waste | Disposal of chemicals, munitions, or radioactive materials into oceans | Long-term contamination, bioaccumulation of toxins in food chains | | Shipwrecks & Sunken Vessels | Warships sunk during combat | Leaking fuel and hazardous materials; can also alter seabed ecosystems | | Naval Training Exercises | Large-scale drills involving ships, aircraft, and weapons | Noise pollution, habitat disruption, accidental spills or explosions | | Seabed Mining for Military Resources | Extraction of minerals used for military tech | Habitat destruction, sediment plumes affecting marine organisms | | Chemical Weapon Testing | Testing or disposal of chemical agents in marine environments | Severe toxicity, long-term ecological and genetic damage | | Nuclear Testing (Underwater) | Detonation of nuclear devices in or near oceans | Radiation contamination, destruction of ecosystems, long-term health risks | | Anti-Submarine Warfare | Techniques including depth charges and tracking systems | Noise pollution, physical destruction, stress to marine species | *Table 3: A table outlining how military action affects oceans and the wider ecosystem.* # Conclusion The military, whilst a necessary measure for national security, is responsible for significant ecological harm across the globe and doesn't discriminate on biomes. Where there is conflict, there is inevitable harm and this is unlikely to change in the near future. Especially as resource availability and territory is a common theme when observing conflict. In a world where it is only going to get worse as the climate changes. There needs to be a drastic change not only for industrial power houses but also consumer behaviour. We need a stronger and impartial governing body to influence policy in developed and developing countries to create more transparency and a firmer stance on reporting. # References ACLED. “CAST | Conflict Alert System.” _ACLED_, 12 Dec. 2025, acleddata.com/platform/cast-conflict-alert-system. Binh Pham-Duc, et al. “Trends and Applications of Google Earth Engine in Remote Sensing and Earth Science Research: A Bibliometric Analysis Using Scopus Database.” _Earth Science Informatics_, vol. 16, no. 3, Springer Science+Business Media, June 2023, pp. 2355–71, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12145-023-01035-2. Accessed 7 Sept. 2023. CEOBS. “Briefing: Accounting for the Uncounted - the Global Climate Impact of Militaries - CEOBS.” _CEOBS_, 13 Nov. 2025, ceobs.org/briefing-accounting-for-the-uncounted-the-global-climate-impact-of-militaries/. Accessed 6 Apr. 2026. Costa, Jenickson R. S., et al. “Forest Ecosystem Multifunctionality: A Systematic Review of Measures and Drivers.” _Current Forestry Reports_, vol. 12, no. 1, Springer Science and Business Media LLC, Jan. 2026, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40725-025-00266-4. Lawrence, Michael J., et al. “The Effects of Modern War and Military Activities on Biodiversity and the Environment.” _Environmental Reviews_, vol. 23, no. 4, Dec. 2015, pp. 443–60, https://doi.org/10.1139/er-2015-0039. Wijesinghe, Kenneth, et al. “Marine Pollution: The Global Challenge of Ocean Contaminants and Mitigation Efforts.” _Anthropocene Coasts_, vol. 9, no. 1, Springer Nature, Jan. 2026, https://doi.org/10.1007/s44218-025-00107-8. #Data #Environment #RemoteSensing #Ecology